Prior to the New Kingdom, The Book of the Dead was only available to the royalty and the elite. The popularity of the Osiris Myth in the period of the New Kingdom made people believe the spells were indispensible because Osiris featured so prominently in the soul’s judgment in the afterlife. As more and more people desired their own Book of the Dead, scribes obliged them and the book became just another commodity produced for sale.
In the same way that publishers in the present day offer Print on Demand books or self-published works, the scribes offered different “packages” to clients to choose from. They could have as few or as many spells in their books as they could afford. Bunson writes, “The individual could decide the number of chapters to be included, the types of illustrations, and the quality of the papyrus used. The individual was limited only by his or her financial resources” (48).
From the New Kingdom through the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323 – 30 BCE) The Book of the Dead was produced this way. It continued to vary in form and size until c. 650 BCE when it was fixed at 190 uniform spells but, still, people could add or subtract what they wanted to from the text. A Book of the Dead from the Ptolemaic Dynasty which belonged to a woman named Tentruty had the text of The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys attached to it which was never included as part of the Book of the Dead. Other copies of the book continued to be produced with more or less spells depending on what the buyer could afford. The one spell which every copy seems to have had, however, was Spell 125.
Featured here are several papyrus fragments of the Egyptian Book of the Dead from Egypt’s Ptolemaic Era (305 – 30 BCE). Examining Egyptian art during these 300 years reveals strong continuities in its traditions but also interactions with Greek art, whose forms and styles swept the world with Alexander’s armies. The encounter of the two cultures had many aspects and phases, and is easiest to comprehend by looking first at the new ruling class, its involvements and concerns, and then at religion and the arts in the greater land of Egypt.
Greek bifolium from the inside of a gathering with Greek foliation in a later hand, ff. 119, 120. Written on vellum in a small, neat minuscule hand in dark brown ink with section heading, initials, and ornamental penwork divisions in red. It does not appear to have been ruled.
Date: 11th century. See V. Gardthausen, Griechische Palæographie: Zweiter Band: Die Schrift, Unterschriften und Chronologie im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter, Zweite Auglage (Leipzig: Verlag von Veit & Comp., 1913), Taf. 7.
Provenance: This was formerly in the collection of late Professor David Bitzer of the Union Theological Seminary in Richmond, Virginia, According to De Ricci & Wilson he obtained it from the London dealer Leighton. The consignor was a descendant of Bitzer.
Contents:
The contents follow that of the edition of the Notitiæ by Darrouzès. The list for each eparchy has been supplied from a scanned image of his work in Notitia 1, 144-326, pp. 207-211.
The initial in white, yellow, and blue, the shape of the ‘Q’ formed by an elaborate interlace pattern of white-vine scroll outlined in red, the infill with stylised foliage against a ground of green, 45 lines of text written in a handsome rounded protogothic transitional script in two columns, incipits in uncials touched red, initials in red (approximately 50 words, or 10 lines, trimmed from the bottom of each column, verso with adhesive stains to upper margin, not affecting the text). In a modern cloth binding. The recto opens with the end of thestandard Lucan prologue and continues with the beginning of Luke’s Gospel (Luke 1:1-25) — ‘Quoniam quidam multi conati sunt’; the verso continues with Luke 1:29-76. The layout of the text is unusual and interesting: verse 1 is here treated as the start of the book; often verses 1-4, the Dedication to Theophilus, are treated as a prologue, and verse 5 as the start of the Gospel proper. Both theMagnificat and the Benedictus, two of the six biblical canticles that were sung every week in all monasteries, are here written with enlarged red initials, their incipits in rustic capitals touched with red dots, and with left-justified red initials at the start of each phrase. The first lines of verses 18, 56, and 57 are treated similarly. The abstract, stylised design of the initial, with its intricate white-vine pattern and stark palette of primary colours testifies to the influence in Romanesque decoration of pre-Christian ornamental traditions. The fine example in the present leaf is closely reminiscent of an initial ‘A’ cut from another Romanesque bible, now at the Free Library in Philadelphia (Lewis E M 16:10)
This expertly carved alabaster relief, dating from approximately 300–100 BCE, depicts the commanding head of a bull, exemplifying the high level of artistry achieved by Sabaean sculptors. The broad forehead and prominent, outward-curving horns are rendered with meticulous precision, capturing the animal’s majestic presence. Carved with subtle incisions, the detailed facial features include expressive eyes that convey a sense of calm strength, along with alert ears that subtly indicate the bull’s awareness. The animal’s facial contours are skillfully emphasized, contrasting with the smooth, polished alabaster surface of the rectangular block.
The relief reflects the cultural reverence for bulls within Sabaean society, where such figures symbolized fertility, power, and divine authority. The preservation of fine detail and polished finish underscores its significance as both a religious and artistic object. This piece offers valuable insight into the spiritual and artistic traditions of the Sabaean civilization, standing as a striking testament to their craftsmanship and symbolic imagery.
REFERENCE #
SI_SA_1003
CIVILIZATION
Sabaean, 300 B.C.E. – 100 B.C.E.
SIZE
L. 11cm, W. 10cm
CONDITION
Some natural weathering, Fine condition
PRICE
$4000
PROVENANCE
The Baidun Collection. Purchased from the Jerusalem Local Market, 1980’s.
Two handles from a bowl, pot or goblet. The square section is hollow and convex in shape to make holding the vessel easier. Each handle terminates in a sphinx standing on its back legs, with its front paws outstretched. These would be the point where the handles were attached to the upper area of the vessel.
The sphinxes are identical apart from the fact that one head looks to the left and the other to the right, although not quite to the same degree. They are depicted according to the Greek social conception of this mythological creature. Each has the bust of a woman, the body and tail of a lion, great bird wings and a female human head. Each head is depicted wearing a diadem and with the hair swept up and held at the back of the head in a bun. The precision and detail of the working of the faces and wings is notable, giving a sense of movement and realism to the pair. One can appreciate a clear attempt to differentiate between the feathers of the wings: those inserted into the body itself are small and short, rather like scales, while those at the extreme end of the wings are long and narrow, to help the creature take flight.
According to ancient literary sources, the sphinx was a monster with the face and bust of a woman, the claws of a lion, the body of a dog, the tail of a snake and wings of a bird. This demon of divine origin, whose presence excited uncertainty and terror in humans, was also characterized by its pallid appearance, fiery look and venomous mouth. It’s possible that this hybrid had its origin in Egyptian iconography, where it was represented with a feline body and human face, possibly connected to the divine power of the pharaoh.
The sculptural prototype of Greek sphinxes appears around the 7th century BCE in terracotta and was usually found decorating large receptacles. A century later they appeared in marble crowning seated ex-votos on a column. The monstrous, aggressive nature of the hybrid was channelled into funerary art, serving as an apotropaic symbol to keep away malevolent forces. It was usual, therefore, to find this iconography in metopes and hollow acroteria in Greek necropoleis of the 6th century BCE, usually with the animal in profile and turning its head toward the public in an attitude of defiance.
Reference #
SI_GR_1034
Civilization Greek,
5th – 4th century B.C.E.
Size
H. 14 cm
Condition
Intact, Fine
Price
P.O.R.
Provenance
Private collection, Great Britain. Acquired before 1975
Table leg in the form of an upright lion. It’s back forms an S-shaped curve. The Jaws are wide open, revealing the canines and the tongue. The hair of the mane is arranged in regular tufts. Originally, acanthus leaves adorned it’s chest and sides. The reverse from the shoulders blades upward is flattened, forming a rectangular support. A circular drill hole between the shoulders to insert a horizontal bar supporting the table. On the top of the head, part of the pilaster on which the table top rested is missing. The lack of incised iris and pupil as well as the simple execution of the curls without drilling are indicative of an early date Drill holes on both sides of the lion’s chest where the acanthus emerge.
Reference: For the construction of a Roman table with trapezophoroi in the form of lions, cf. a marble table in the National Museum, Naples, in Richter – 1966, pl 577.
cf. two trapezophori in the Musei Vaticani in Rome, Arachne – 53732 and the Museum of Ancient Art Stockholm, Arachne – 130164
REFERENCE #
SI_RM_1082
CIVILIZATION
Roman, 100 C.E.
SIZE
H. 50 cm
CONDITION
Nose slightly worn, lower jaw and ears fragmentary. The rolled up leaf on the right largely preserved. The leaves on the chest and the left side missing. Preserved from the hips upward. Reassembled from two parts. Right hip slightly worn. Transition to foot preserved
CAROLINGIAN COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS, in Latin, two bifolia from a MANUSCRIPT ON VELLUM [Italy, 9th century] 280 x 380mm. 4 leaves (2 bifolia), ruled in blind, preserving most of two columns per page, each with 27 lines written in Carolingian minuscule in brown ink, numerous initials in two sizes in red (recovered from a binding, and thus very worn on one side of each bifolium, and with significant losses on three sides). In an archival folder. Provenance: Sotheby’s, 19 June 1990, lot 1. Legible passages of text consist of short phrases of Psalm 67: verses 6, 9-14, 16-17, 19, 22, and 25, presented as short lemmata interspersed by passages of commentary. The eight pages appear to be textually consecutive and would therefore originally have been the central two bifolia of their gathering. THE COMMENTARY IS THUS FAR UNIDENTIFIED, AND PERHAPS NOT PREVIOUSLY RECORDED. In the 9th century there were three main commentaries on the Psalms: Augustine’s Ennarationes in Psalmos, Cassiodorus’s Expositio Psalmorum, and Pseudo-Jerome’s Breviarium; the present fragment is none of these. Other much rarer ones were the Glossa ex traditionum seniorum, Bede’s Titulatio, and the commentary found in the Mondsee Psalter. See M. Gibson, ‘Carolingian Glossed Psalters’, in R. Gameson, ed., The Early Medieval Bible: Its Production, Decoration and Use, Cambridge, 1994, esp. pp.96
Three Leaves From A Decorated Manuscript On Vellum [Italy, Early Fourteenth Century]
3 leaves (a bifolium and a singleton), each 310mm. by 215mm., single column, 30 lines in black ink in a fine and professional university hand, capitals touched in red, paragraph marks alternately in red or blue, running titles in red “L[iber]” and “Phy[sica]” at head of each leaf, some early erasures and corrections, small flaws in vellum and occasional stains, else in fine condition.
Reference #
MS_BZ_1011
Civilization
Byzantine, Medieval, 1400 C.E.
Size
H. 31 cm x W. 21.5 cm
Condition
Some early erasures and corrections, small flaws in vellum and occasional stains, else in fine condition.
Price
Price available upon request
Provenance
Baidun Collection, acquired at Sotheby’s sale December 2013
